Decoding divides: The role of socioeconomic status and personality traits in AI divides and educational inequality

This study investigates whether the integration of AI in primary education relates to the digital divide and educational inequality, thereby examining the mediating roles of AI usage and digital literacy. Using survey and national registry data from 4497 Grade 6 students in the Netherlands (2022–2023), we examined relations between family socioeconomic status (SES) and personality traits (openness, extraversion, perseverance) via AI usage and digital literacy to academic performance. Our analyses revealed that digital literacy, not AI usage, positively mediated the relationship between all three personality traits and academic achievement. Family SES demonstrated a strong, direct relationship with performance but was not positively mediated by either AI usage or digital literacy, indicating that SES advantages persisted regardless of classroom AI implementation we observed. These findings suggest that as technology access becomes ubiquitous, a skill-based gap is evident that correlates with personality traits. This highlights the need for educational policies to move beyond providing mere access to AI and focus on cultivating digital skills tailored to diverse student personal attributes to ensure educational equality. • Digital literacy, not AI usage intensity, mediates personality-performance links. • A new digital skills divide emerges, driven by personality traits instead of SES. • SES advantages on performance operate independently of AI engagement.