Caffeine as a cardiovascular protective agent: a comprehensive review of mechanisms and outcomes

Overall, moderate caffeine intake generally appears safe for cardiovascular health. The cardioprotective links seen in epidemiological studies may be affected by coffee components, how it is prepared, and residual behavioral confounding, while solid evidence for a direct protective effect of caffeine is still limited. Remaining uncertainties highlight the need for future trials that isolate caffeine's dose-response from coffee matrices, incorporate genotype-based stratification, evaluate baseline hemodynamic phenotypes, and use standardized clinical endpoints. Such work is essential to clarify causal pathways and optimize the clinical relevance of caffeine-related recommendations.