Distinct hippocampal mechanisms support concept formation and updating

Learning systems must constantly decide whether to create new representations or update existing ones. For example, a child learning that a bat is a mammal and not a bird would be best served by creating a new representation, whereas updating may be best when encountering a second similar bat. Characterizing the neural dynamics that underlie these complementary memory operations requires identifying the exact moments when each operation occurs. We address this challenge by interrogating human fMRI brain activation (13 females and 12 males) with a computational learning model that predicts trial-by-trial when memories are created versus updated. We found distinct neural engagement in anterior hippocampus and ventral striatum for model-predicted memory create and update events during early learning. Notably, the degree of this effect in hippocampus, but not ventral striatum, significantly related to learning outcome. Hippocampus additionally showed distinct patterns of functional coactivation with ventromedial prefrontal cortex and angular gyrus during memory creation and premotor cortex during memory updating. These findings suggest that complementary memory functions, as formalized in computational learning models, underlie the rapid formation of novel conceptual knowledge, with the hippocampus and its interactions with frontoparietal circuits playing a crucial role in successful learning.<b>Significance statement</b> How do we reconcile new experiences with existing knowledge? Prominent theories suggest that novel information is either captured by creating new memories or leveraged to update existing memories, yet empirical support of how these distinct memory operations unfold during learning is limited. Here, we combine computational modeling of human learning behaviour with functional neuroimaging to identify moments of memory formation and updating and characterize their neural signatures. We find that both hippocampus and ventral striatum are distinctly engaged when memories are created versus updated; however, it is only hippocampus activation that is associated with learning outcomes. Our findings motivate a key theoretical refinement that positions hippocampus is a key player in building organized memories from the earliest moments of learning.