Personalized transcranial electrical stimulation: a review of computational modeling and optimization

<i>Objective</i>. Personalized transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) has gained increasing attention due to the substantial inter-individual variability in brain anatomy and physiology. While previous reviews have discussed the physiological mechanisms and clinical applications of tES, there remains a critical gap in up-to-date syntheses focused on the computational modeling frameworks that enable individualized stimulation optimization.<i>Approach</i>. This review presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in computational techniques supporting personalized tES. We systematically examine developments in forward modeling for simulating individualized electric fields, as well as inverse modeling approaches for optimizing stimulation parameters. We critically evaluate progress in head modeling pipelines, optimization algorithms, and the integration of multimodal brain data.<i>Main results</i>. Recent advances have substantially accelerated the construction of subject-specific head conductor models and expanded the landscape of optimization methods, including multi-objective optimization and brain network-informed optimization. These advances allow for dynamic and individualized stimulation planning, moving beyond empirical trial-and-error approaches.<i>Significance</i>. By integrating the latest developments in computational modeling for personalized tES, this review highlights current challenges, emerging opportunities, and future directions for achieving precision neuromodulation.