Artisanal and small-scale gold mining–driven settlement expansion and socio-environmental pressures in East Cameroon, Sub-Saharan Africa

Mining activities are important drivers of economic and social development in many rural communities. However, they can also generate significant environmental degradation and social risks. This study examines the socio-environmental pressures associated with artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM)-induced settlement growth, focusing on Kambélé mining hotspot, in eastern Cameroon. Multi-temporal Earth observation imagery from the Sentinel-2 A sensor was analyzed within a geographic information system (GIS) framework to assess spatio-temporal changes in land use/land cover (LULC) between 2016 and 2024. Particular attention was given to mining and settlement classes, for which the direction, distance, and rate of spatial migration were quantified using centers of gravity derived from standard deviation ellipses. Results show a substantial expansion of mining areas from 149.50 ha (2.37% of total land cover) to 792.29 ha (12.54%), accompanied by a fivefold increase in settlement areas from 20.91 in 2016 ha to 122.48 ha in 2024. Analysis of the centers of gravity shows that settlement growth occurred predominantly toward mining zones, with the highest migration velocity observed in the central sector of intensified mining activity. This study provides the first comprehensive, spatio-temporal assessment of artisanal and small-scale gold mining and its interactions with nearby settlements in Kambélé, Eastern Cameroon. The data, methodology, and findings comprise the first comprehensive assessment of spatio-temporal dynamics of ASGM and associated population this mining area. These serve as tools for stakeholders and concerned public authorities to raise public awareness about mining hazards, promote integrated management of mining activities, environmental protection, and population safety.