Advanced electrochemical biosensing to detect mitochondrial Cytochrome C and DNA for cancer diagnosis

Mitochondria function primarily as energy producers while also regulating cellular processes, including apoptosis, calcium homeostasis, intermediary metabolism, free radical generation and oxidative phosphorylation. Scientists have discovered that mitochondria serve as powerful biosensors, exhibiting remarkable potential for predicting drug toxicity and monitoring disease progression. Tumour dynamics research at the cellular level depends on Cytochrome C (Cyt C) release from mitochondria during apoptosis, since this metalloprotein functions as an essential biomarker indicating apoptosis in cancer. The identification of tumour metastasis holds great importance because of its connection to this phenomenon. The measurement of mesenchymal mitochondrial activity in real-time provides both diagnostic capability and therapeutic potential. This review explains biosensing innovations that specifically study mitochondrial Cyt C detection in the field of cancer. Scientists developed fast, specific and sensitive detection systems for Cyt C through the development of biosensors that incorporate optical and electrochemical and electromechanical components that have the potential for the diagnosis of cancer. Computational circuit simulation, along with toehold switch sensors from synthetic biology, enables researchers to build consolidated diagnostic platforms. The newly developed diagnostic methods and technologies expand opportunities for developing minimally invasive, real-time cancer testing based on the biochemical analysis of mitochondrial markers. Additionally, synthetic biology facilitates precise manipulation of molecular pathways, enabling the development of integrated real-time diagnostics. The design of biomolecular circuits integrates biosensing, signal amplification, and data output into living or synthetic systems, facilitating continuous monitoring, rapid identification, and intelligent responses to disease biomarkers with high sensitivity and adaptability. This review analyses the way mitochondrial Cyt C functions as a biomarker for cancer evaluation. The review article focuses on contemporary biosensor innovations, including electrochemical platforms powered by nanomaterials, which boost sensitivity and speed of detection. This review article examines the way synthetic biology, working with molecular pathways, enables researchers to establish real-time unified diagnostic systems. • Biosensors enable early, rapid, and non-invasive cancer detection. • Nanomaterial enhances cancer biosensor sensitivity, specificity, and performance. • Electrochemical, optical, and immunosensor methods show strong clinical potential. • Biosensor technology enables real-time cancer monitoring for personalised diagnostics.