Toward Real-Time Monitoring of Protein Biomarkers: Materials Innovations for Continuous Sensing

Unlike many small molecules, whose fluctuations are relatively well-characterized via existing platforms (e.g., glucose monitors), the continuous monitoring of protein biomarkers has been challenging. Proteins are larger and structurally complex and may be present at low concentrations. They carry rich, actionable biomolecular information directly tied to disease progression, classification, therapeutic response, etc. Capturing their dynamic profiles in real time could transform the fundamental understanding of diseases and may inform early detection through proactive disease monitoring. While recent efforts have enabled continuous detection in controlled experimental settings, there remain knowledge gaps in creating sensors that operate robustly in vivo over extended periods and across a broad range of biomarkers and complex biofluids. In this perspective, we present a materials-focused overview of emerging technologies that have advanced real-time protein monitoring. We highlight strategies, including novel biorecognition elements, active regenerating strategies, improved transduction platforms, and novel materials that support enhanced sensitivity and improved specificity. The goal is to connect cutting-edge material science with the urgent clinical need for dynamic, accessible protein monitors and to provide a helpful guide for future biosensor development.