Why we delay: A meta-analytic investigation of motivational quality and forms of delay

This study examined the associations between different qualities of motivation and distinct forms of delay within the framework of Self-Determination Theory. A total of 155 effect sizes from 64 independent studies ( N = 28,019) were synthesized using meta-analytic techniques. Overall, the relationship between motivation and delay was multifaceted and depended on the quality of motivation as well as the specific form of delay examined. Intrinsic motivation was negatively associated with delay, whereas extrinsic motivation showed no significant association. Controlled motivation and amotivation were positively associated with delay, whereas autonomous motivation was negatively related to delay. Importantly, these associations varied across forms of delay. Academic procrastination and procrastination, maladaptive forms of delay shared similar patterns: negatively correlated with intrinsic and autonomous motivation, and positively correlated with controlled motivation. In contrast, strategic delay was positively associated with intrinsic and autonomous motivation and negatively associated with controlled motivation. General procrastination showed no significant relation to the extrinsic motivation or controlled motivation. Overall, the findings underscore the importance of motivational quality—particularly autonomy—and the distinction between forms of delay in understanding procrastination.