The Genomic Landscape of Cattle: Domestication, Dispersal, and Adaptive Evolution

Domestic cattle represent one of the most significant evolutionary successes in the history of human-animal mutualism. This review synthesizes evidence from paleogenomics and modern population genetics, particularly recent pangenome analyses, to reconstruct a comprehensive evolutionary trajectory of cattle. We outline the two domestication events: the emergence of taurine cattle (<i>Bos taurus</i>) in the Fertile Crescent (~10,500 years ago) and zebu cattle (<i>Bos indicus</i>) in the Indus Valley (~8000 years ago). Following domestication, cattle dispersed globally alongside human migration, resulting in a complex genetic mosaic shaped by introgression with wild relatives and extensive admixture between lineages. By integrating data from mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosome haplotypes, and whole-genome sequencing of modern, ancient, and wild samples, we reconstruct the detailed global dispersal of cattle. Furthermore, we dissect the molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic diversity, emphasizing how natural selection has driven environmental adaptation, how artificial selection has optimized production traits, and how the emerging bovine pangenome is unveiling "hidden" genetic variations critical for climate resilience and disease resistance. Ultimately, this review summarizes the origin, dispersal, and genomic diversity of cattle, offering vital insights for the conservation of indigenous genetic resources and the advancement of molecular breeding strategies in the face of a changing global climate.