K-12 students’ basic psychological needs satisfaction in online learning: perceived level, group difference, and its influence

These findings extend Self-Determination Theory to the context of K-12 online learning and highlight the differential roles of the three basic needs. The results underscore the importance of designing online instruction that enhances competence and autonomy to promote student engagement. Educational policymakers and practitioners should consider grade-specific strategies to better support students' basic psychological needs in digital environments.