High-Accuracy Mass Estimation of Small Asteroids for Planetary Defense Using the Gravity Imaging Radio Observer (GIRO)

Abstract Accurate mass determination of small, sub-kilometer asteroids is a key challenge in planetary defense, particularly for newly discovered potentially impacting asteroids requiring rapid response. This work investigates the Gravity Imaging Radio Observer (GIRO), an innovative instrument concept based on inter-satellite Doppler tracking between a host spacecraft and small radio probes, combined with high-precision optical imaging using the Advanced Pointing Imaging Camera. We assess GIRO’s performance in a simulated flyby mission targeting asteroid 2024 YR4, and demonstrate that a compact beacon-based architecture can achieve formal 1 $$\sigma $$ mass-estimation uncertainties of about 20% for a 60-meter-class object, assuming a Bennu-like density and a flyby at 50 m altitude above the surface with a relative velocity of 5 km/s. Most of the information content arises from post-encounter differential deflections between the host spacecraft and beacons, allowing robust estimation even in scenarios with limited data availability around closest approach. Sensitivity studies confirm that the technique is resilient to variations in flyby geometry and beacon release strategy, enabling accurate mass determination for a wide range of asteroid sizes, flyby velocities, and operational constraints. These findings position GIRO, in combination with a capable imager, as a highly promising candidate for planetary defense and reconnaissance missions requiring rapid deployment, minimal complexity, and reliable scientific and engineering return.