Governance failure and wildfire escalation

Wildfire escalation is increasingly threatening ecosystems and communities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, particularly in forest and rangeland landscapes where eco- logical flammability interacts with human activity. While environmental and climatic drivers are well studied, governance factors remain underexplored despite their decisive role in shaping how ecological risk translates into disasters. Regional forests show consid- erable ecological diversity, including chir pine-dominated stands, mixed temperate conifer forests, broadleaved oak-associated systems, and shrub rangeland mosaics, each differing in fuel structure and fire behavior. Dependence on fuelwood collection, grazing, and forest access further influences ignition probability and fire spread. This study examines how governance failures influence wildfire risk and severity through a Governance-Fire Risk Framework. Governance is treated as a determining institutional condition affecting prevention capacity, regulation of hazardous land use, fuel management, and emergency response effectiveness. A cross-sectional survey of 540 stakeholders from rural (Dir Lower, Dir Upper) and peri-urban districts (Swat, Mansehra, Abbottabad) was analyzed using SPSS (version 26) and AMOS (version 24) (CFA and SEM). Governance failure significantly escalates wildfire risk through delayed emergency response, regulatory non-compliance, political interference, and weak institutional coordination. Institutional preparedness and response capacity reduce risks, whereas corruption intensifies them. Corruption functions through illegal land conversion, diversion of fire management resources, procurement irregularities, nepotistic staffing, and selective enforcement, increasing ignition sources, fuel accumulation, and response delays. Rural districts show stronger governance-fire linkages. Wildfire escalation in KP is governance-driven in interaction with ecological conditions and community dependence on forest resources. Effective mitigation requires anti-corruption measures, rapid response systems, stronger enforcement, and improved preparedness. The study offers a transferable governance-focused framework for wildfire management in fire-prone developing regions.