AI-enhanced therapeutic drug monitoring for vancomycin and β-lactam antibiotics in critical care: from population PK to bedside algorithms

Most AI models are single-center, retrospective, and surrogate-focused. By incorporating validated AI components into multicentre procedures that prioritize explainability, data quality, usability, and prospective assessment, it has the greatest immediate advantage of enhancing guideline-aligned AUC-guided TDM and population pharmacokinetic (PopPK)//Bayesian frameworks.