Temperature driving a mass killer: assessing the risk of trematode outbreaks for New Zealand seabirds

Global warming is widely recognized as a key driver of current and future changes in marine ecosystems. Parasitic trematodes are highly sensitive to temperature changes, which can lead to drastic impacts on surrounding communities. <i>Copiatestes</i> spp. (Family Syncoelidae) are relatively little-known trematodes with atypical life cycles that have been associated with a mass mortality event of seabirds in the Chatham Islands. As they forage at sea, seabirds get their legs tangled with the sticky, free-living infective stages of <i>Copiatestes</i>, which impairs their ability to take off and land. We tested the impact of seasonally fluctuating sea temperature on the dynamics of <i>Copiatestes thyrsitae</i> at various life stages (infecting second-intermediate host, <i>Nyctiphanes australis</i> euphausiid, and the third free-living infective stage in the water column) by sampling plankton biweekly for 12 months in Otago Harbour, New Zealand. We reveal that higher temperatures are significantly correlated with increases in prevalence and abundance of <i>Copiatestes</i> infections in euphausiids, with a rapid response observed within days to weeks following temperature increases. No correlation was observed between temperature and abundance of free-living stages. Infected euphausiids were smaller in size compared to uninfected individuals. The higher infection levels in euphausiids following warmer temperatures suggest a heightened risk of entanglement for coastal seabirds at these times. Smaller-bodied, surface-feeding seabird species that consume euphausiids are particularly at risk of entanglement. Our findings suggest that even short-term heatwaves can lead to higher risk of seabirds being entangled with <i>Copiatestes</i> filaments, with potentially dire ecological consequences during mass parasite releases.