The 12 November 2025 Ugly Duckling Geomagnetic Storm: From the Sun to the Earth

The 12 November 2025 G4 geomagnetic storm-the third most intense of solar cycle 25-was triggered by a complex shock-ICME (interplanetary coronal mass ejection) structure as a result of three ICMEs and driven shocks that arrived on 11-12 November. The main enhancement in the interplanetary magnetic field occurred in the sheath region behind the shock driven by the second ICME. The Dst index reached -217 nT (the SYM-H index reached -254 nT) and the maximum Kp index was 9-. To comprehensively analyze the causes of the storm and its complex effects on near-Earth space, we used a multi-instrumental data set, involving data from satellite missions (ACE, SDO, PROBA2), GNSS networks, ionosondes, optical instruments, high-frequency radars (SuperDARN-like), and cosmic ray monitors. The auroral oval expanded equatorward (down to ~35° N in America). We recorded a super equatorial plasma bubble that almost reached the auroral oval boundary. The equatorial anomaly crests intensified, exceeding 175 TECU, and shifted poleward (8-10°). At mid-latitudes, the F2 layer critical frequency exhibited a strong negative disturbance (-50%) during the main phase, followed by an unusually prolonged and intense positive phase (+100%). GPS Precise Point Positioning errors increased to 2-3 m at high latitudes and in regions affected by the equatorial bubble. The event also featured a Forbush decrease and ground-level enhancement (GLE 77 according to the database hosted by the University of Oulu) associated with the X5.1 solar flare. The results underscore the complex chain of processes from solar storm to geomagnetic and ionospheric responses, highlighting the risks to satellite-based navigation and communication systems.