A spatial socio-ecological framework for targeting multi-species restoration across multi-use landscapes

Ecosystem-level restoration requires working across diverse land ownerships, even in the least developed portions of the world. Integrating social processes with ecological conditions represents an emerging frontier in global wildlife restoration efforts. While integrated socio-ecological approaches have been applied to individual species, there has yet to be a comprehensive application to inform multi-species restoration efforts. We surveyed landowners in the Northern Great Plains region of Montana, USA to assess levels of tolerance for restoring four species including swift fox ( Vulpes velox ), pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ), black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ) and mountain lions ( Puma concolor ) to predict social tolerance across our study area. We then integrated predictions of habitat suitability for each species to spatially identify target areas for achieving multi-species restoration. Landowners with higher proportions of public land surrounding their ranchlands demonstrated significantly lower tolerance for all four focal species, except prairie dogs. The amount of land enrolled in conservation easements had a positive effect on tolerance for prairie dogs and mountain lions, while the percentage of native grassland and median household income had no effect on tolerance. The highest ecologically suitable habitat occurred in areas of low to medium tolerance for nearly all our focal species, except swift fox which suggests high restoration potential. For other species, our findings suggest there is need for extensive outreach and incentive programs to ensure successful multi-species restoration. Our framework provides a critical tool for targeting restoration action and elucidating the interplay between social tolerance and habitat suitability for landscape-level restoration efforts.