Reporting checklist for foundation and large language models in medical research (REFINE): an international consensus guideline
The REFINE enables transparent, comparable, and reproducible reporting of FM and LLM studies, supporting reliable evidence synthesis in medical and imaging-focused AI studies.
Authors
- Merel Huisman (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2289-7130)
- Aymen Meddeb (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6537-9419)
- Eleftherios Tzanis (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0353-481X)
- André Isaac (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1551-9588)
- Mana Moassefi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0111-7791)
- Andrea Ponsiglione (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0105-935X)
- Jingyu Zhong (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9817-2294)
- Pouria Rouzrokh (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4664-0751)
- Chong Hyun Suh (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4737-0530)
- Soroosh Tayebi Arasteh (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1015-7733)
- Leopold Reiner
- João Santinha (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8174-2943)
- Michail E. Klontzas (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2731-933X)
- Ali Shah Tejani (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6862-5299)
- Charles E. Kahn (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6654-7434)
- Felix Nensa
- Woojin Kim (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8081-5872)
- Nikolaos Papanikolaou (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1028-1016)
- Tugba Akinci D’Antonoli
- Renato Cuocolo
- Errol Colak
- Jawed Nawabi
- Felix Busch
- Su Hwan Kim
- Jens Kleesiek
- Henning Müller
- José Guilherme de Almeida
- Magdalini Paschali
- Vasantha Kumar Venugopal
- Burak Kocak
- Daniel Pinto dos Santos
- Philipp Seeböck
- Christian Bluethgen
- Ismail Mese
- Guang Yang
- Jakob Nikolas Kather
- Bardia Khosravi
- Felipe Kitamura
- Shahriar Faghani
- Lisa C. Adams
- Elmar Kotter
- Dow-Mu Koh
- Bastien Le Guellec
- Michael Ingrisc
- Linda Moy
- Quirin D. Strotzer
- Keno Bressem
- Lena Maier- Hein
- Matthias Dietzel
- Seong Chan Park
- Oliver Diaz
- Johannes Haubold
- Luis Martí- Bonmatí
- Paulo Kuriki
- Akshay Chaudhari
- Karim Lekadir
Institutions
- American College of Radiology (US)
- Champalimaud Foundation (PT)
- University of Geneva (CH)
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
- Üsküdar University (TR)
- Project HOPE (US)
- St. Michael's Hospital (CA)
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University of Salerno (IT)
- Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- University of Lisbon (PT)
- University of Crete (GR)
- Institute of Cancer Research (GB)
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (CH)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (DE)
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University (CN)
- King's College London (GB)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Heidelberg University (DE)
- Université de Lille (FR)
- Mediterranean University (ME)
- University Medical Center Freiburg (DE)
- University Hospital Heidelberg (DE)
- WinnMed (US)
- TUM Klinikum (DE)
- Radboud University Medical Center (NL)
- University of California System (US)
- University Hospital Regensburg (DE)
- Yale University (US)
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (DE)
- University of Ulsan (KR)
- Universitätsklinikum Erlangen (DE)
- Palo Alto Veterans Institute for Research (US)
- St Michael’s Hospital (IE)
- Lille’s Cardiology Hospital (FR)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna (AT)
- Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute and Research Centre (IN)
- University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Southwestern Medical Center (US)
- University Hospital of Zurich (CH)
- Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (TR)
- Tongren Hospital (CN)
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (DE)
- Essen University Hospital (DE)
- Royal Marsden Hospital (GB)
- Mayo Clinic in Arizona (US)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
- Mayo Clinic in Florida (US)
- Deutsches Herzzentrum München (DE)
- Hôpital de Sion (CH)
- Resonance Research (United States) (US)
- Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden – University of Applied Sciences (DE)
- New York University (US)
- East China Normal University (CN)
- University of Naples Federico II (IT)
- Universitat de Barcelona (ES)
- Medical University of Vienna (AT)
- Technische Universität Dresden (DE)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (US)
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (BR)
- RWTH Aachen University (DE)
- Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas (GR)
- Stanford University (US)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
- Published
- 2026-02-26
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.4274/dir.2026.263812
- Citations
- 2
- Primary Topic
- Clinical practice guidelines implementation
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 83.69
Funders
- Pfizer
- AstraZeneca
- Radiological Society of North America
- Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Technische Universität Dresden
- Eisai
- Daiichi Sankyo Europe