Occurrence and removal of microplastics in three drinking water treatment plants and commercial bottled water brands in Jordan

Microplastics (MPs) have been recognized as persistence contaminant in drinking water causing potential risks to human health. This study investigated the occurrence, removal and polymer type of MPs in three major drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) as well as different commercial brands of bottled water in Jordan. Water samples were collected from different treatment stages at DWTPs between May and June 2025. These samples were sieved over 20 µm sieve and analyzed for MPs using Nile Red staining and micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR). The results showed that MPs were present in all raw water samples of Zai, Zara and Jerash DWTPs, with concentrations ranged from 2.3 to 17.7 particles/L resulting an average MPs removal efficiency of 75%, 81%, 65% respectively. Also, for commercial bottled water, MPs concentrations ranged from 1.1 to 4.4 particles/L which are slightly higher than those measured at the outlets of the DWTPs. Moreover, the results showed that the rayon fiber, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polyurethane (PU), and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) were the main types of polymers detected in the samples. Overall, the study findings demonstrated that existing DWTPs in Jordan substantially reduce microplastic loads but do not fully eliminate MPs ≥ 20 µm. Moreover, the results established a baseline for MPs levels in drinking water and commercial bottled water in a water-scarce region. • First national assessment of MPs in Jordanian DWTPs • MPs ≥ 20 µm detected in raw and treated waters • Treatment processes achieved 65–81% MP removal • PET, PE, PU, PTFE and rayon were dominant polymers • Baseline data established for a water-scarce region