Reproductive Success Beyond Pollinators: Microhabitat Effects and Pollen Dynamics in Epipactis bugacensis, a Traditionally Obligately Autogamous Orchid

Orchid pollination is traditionally considered to rely on intact pollinarium transfer by animal vectors. Species lacking a functional viscidium are generally classified as obligately autogamous. In this study, we investigated the reproductive biology of <i>Epipactis bugacensis</i>, a taxon long regarded as strictly self-pollinating. Floral visitor activity was assessed through repeated field observations, and pollinator dependence was tested using a pollinator-exclusion (net-covering) experiment at two Hungarian populations, combined with measurements of fruit set, capsule volume, seed number, and seed density. We documented a previously unreported pollen-transfer mechanism in <i>E. bugacensis</i>, whereby halictid bees fragment pollinia and transfer these fragments in their scopa to neighboring flowers enabling geitonogamous deposition and suggesting the potential for xenogamous pollen transfer. Other visitor taxa showed no evidence of effective pollen transport. Mesh coverage increased fruit set, capsule volume, and seed number, while seed density remained unchanged. Reproductive output declined from basal to apical positions along flowering shoots, revealing strong internal resource-allocation constraints. Overall, <i>E. bugacensis</i> is predominantly self-pollinating but not strictly obligate autogamous, and its reproductive success is governed primarily by microhabitat quality rather than pollinator availability.