Tumor antigen only (TAO) vaccine platforms for glioblastoma therapeutics: a systematic review of evidence from clinical trials

Glioblastoma is the most common form of primary brain tumor in adults, characterized by rapid progression and poor prognosis-despite the standard of care treatment including maximal safe resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Cancer vaccination has emerged as a promising strategy to harness the patient's immune system against glioblastoma. Cancer vaccination strategies can broadly be divided into cell-based or tumor antigen only (TAO), depending on whether they incorporate the use of viable immune cells. Here, we reviewed data from clinical trials that tested TAO cancer vaccination strategies for glioblastoma treatment, including personalized vaccines. Clinical safety and efficacy profiles for each vaccination strategy are summarized. Insights gained from these clinical trials are reviewed to identify opportunities for future therapeutic advancement.