From charcoal to clean cooking: Understanding urban household energy choices and behaviors in southern Africa

Understanding household energy choices and behaviors is essential for advancing clean cooking transitions in Africa. This study analyzes urban household cooking energy profiles in Lusaka, Zambia, and Lilongwe, Malawi, two rapidly urbanizing capitals with rising electricity access. Drawing on household survey data, we explore fuel usage patterns, appliance choices and usage, and the drivers of energy choices. Findings reveal persistent fuel stacking across income levels, with charcoal as the most widely used fuel in both cities. While electricity access is higher in Lusaka, cooking with electricity remains limited due to the unreliability of supply, high cost of appliances, high electricity prices affecting affordability, longer cooking times, and cultural constraints. In Lilongwe, firewood use remains significant even in urban zones where charcoal is widely used. Gender, household socioeconomics, income, market accessibility, food types, and appliance ownership shape fuel choice decisions, indicating that economic capacity alone does not ensure adoption of cleaner fuels. The study highlights the importance of localized market dynamics and informal energy economies, which sustain widespread biomass use. Our findings challenge the linear “energy ladder” model and support a more context-sensitive “energy stacking” paradigm. We argue that clean cooking initiatives must go beyond mere access to infrastructure to address sociocultural practices, cultural norms, supply reliability, and affordability. These demand-side insights offer actionable implications for policymakers, especially in the context of SDG 7 and just energy transitions for African cities. We emphasize the need for adaptive, city-specific strategies that integrate behavioral insights, inclusive market reforms, and cross-sectoral policy collaboration. • Fuel stacking, not substitution, defines household energy use dominated by charcoal • Income alone does not determine adoption of clean energy. • Informal fuelwood and charcoal markets thrive and shape household energy decisions. • Clean cooking needs holistic solutions tackling reliability, affordability, and cultural standards. • Context-differentiated clean cooking policies should integrate household cooking behaviors