Microplastic–Cadmium Interaction in Paddy Soils: An Overlooked Risk Exacerbating Cadmium Contamination in Rice and Microbial Dysbiosis

The co-occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and cadmium (Cd) in agricultural soils poses ecological risks, yet their interactions in flooded rice paddies remain unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the individual and combined effects of polyethylene MPs (mPE) and Cd on rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i> L.) growth, Cd accumulation, and soil microbial communities. Combined stress (5 mg/kg Cd + 1% mPE) significantly reduced rice growth (4.1-13.8% in plant height) and increased Cd accumulation in roots, stems, and seeds, driven by MP-enhanced Cd bioavailability. MPs altered soil pH, organic matter (OM), and moisture content (MC), indirectly suppressing yield. Microbial analysis revealed decreased bacterial alpha diversity (0.86-8.36%), favoring Cd-tolerant taxa (e.g., <i>Solirubrobacteraceae</i>), while fungal responses were weaker under flooding. Structural equation modeling indicated that Cd exerted direct toxicity through tissue accumulation, whereas MPs acted indirectly by modifying soil properties and inducing oxidative stress. Under co-exposure, MPs intensified Cd-induced oxidative stress, enhancing both direct and indirect toxicity pathways. Mantel tests identified DTPA-extractable Cd (r = 0.70) and OM (r = 0.55) as key drivers of Cd uptake. These findings highlight the complex interplay of MPs and Cd in rice paddies, with implications for managing co-contaminated agroecosystems.