How paternalistic leadership influences teachers' resistance to STEM reform: the mediating role of teachers' STEM literacy and the moderating role of work engagement

Based on these findings, enhancing teachers' STEM literacy and willingness to participate in STEM education requires promoting a culture of benevolent-moral leadership while carefully defining the boundaries of authoritarian management practices. Meanwhile, differentiated incentive and support mechanisms should be developed according to teachers' levels of work engagement, thereby fostering sustained professional development and active involvement in STEM education reform.