Children's perceptions of bullying, exclusion and defending in English primary schools: A qualitative study

Bullying in primary school is experienced within peer relationships and classroom norms, yet less is known about how children themselves reason about whether and how to defend others. This study examined pupils’ perceptions and anticipated responses to bullying and exclusion in English primary schools. Thirty-six children (Years 4–5; 18 paired interviews) from two state-maintained and three independent schools participated in semi-structured, activity-based interviews that included a short vignette to support discussion. Working from a realist orientation, data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three themes were identified. The theme understanding bullying dynamics captured children's recognition of patterned, intentional harm and the emotional consequences for peers. Empathy constrained described how pupils’ willingness to help was shaped by perceived social risk, uncertainty about how to act, and competing pressures. Finally, Moral dimensions of prosocial defence and reciprocity showed that decisions to intervene were filtered through fairness judgements, relational history, and expectations of future reciprocity. Across accounts, children expressed concern for victims but calibrated action to peer hierarchies, safety, and school norms. Findings suggest that defending is a situated moral practice rather than a simple function of empathy. School efforts to promote defending may be strengthened by work on peer norms, visible adult support, and concrete bystander strategies, alongside opportunities for pupils to discuss fairness and responsibility.