An integrated UAV-based spectral-index fusion framework using machine learning classifiers to model physiological maturity in dry bean

• UAV spectral-index fusion classifies dry bean’s three maturity classes. • Evaluates 63 spectral feature sets and 10 ML classifiers for non-linear maturity. • Support Vector Classifier with Band_All6 + MCARI achieves > 70% test accuracy. • Hybrid Band_All6 + MCARI feature outperform band-only or index-only maturity inputs. • Composite-Friedman ranking reveals SVC as most robust model across feature sets. Accurate and scalable prediction of physiological maturity (PM) in leguminous crops remains a key challenge due to indeterminate growth and canopy heterogeneity. Thus, causing difficulties for optimizing breeding decisions and field management. This study develops a novel UAV-based multispectral-index fusion framework for high-throughput maturity classification in dry bean. This is conducted by combining parametric and non-parametric machine learning (ML) classification models to capture non-linear maturity signatures. Multispectral imagery was collected over three growing seasons across multiple genotypes. Six spectral bands and five maturity-relevant vegetation indices capturing chlorophyll degradation, senescence, and canopy greenness were evaluated through 63 feature-set combinations and 10 parametric and non-parametric ML classifiers. Model performance was assessed using stratified five-fold cross-validation, composite z-score aggregation, and Friedman-Nemenyi statistical ranking to jointly evaluate accuracy and consistency. Among all the model-feature combinations, the Support Vector Classifier (SVC) paired with Band_All6 + MCARI feature-set achieved the highest test accuracy (>70%), with class-wise recall of 63.2%, 71.4% and 79.4% for early, medium and late maturity, respectively. Hybrid feature-sets integrating chlorophyll-sensitive indices with spectral bands consistently outperformed index-only or band-only sets, confirming the synergistic effect of bands and engineered index coupling. This research establishes a statistically validated pipeline linking UAV multispectral data, vegetation spectral-index and machine learning classification to quantify PM variability in dry bean with potential for validation in other legume crops. The proposed framework offers a generalizable approach for non-destructive maturity prediction, enabling breeders to accelerate genotype selection and harvest scheduling under field-scale conditions.