Verb-construction integration in L2 spoken production: a comparative analysis of EFL and ESL learners

Abstract This study investigates the impact of learning contexts on the usage patterns of verbs and verb argument structure constructions (VACs) in L2 spoken production, comparing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. Analyzing spoken corpus data from 400 participants, we examined verb–VAC associations, semantic cohesion, and verb diversity. Results reveal that compared to EFL learners, ESL learners demonstrate significantly stronger verb–VAC associations, higher semantic cohesion within VACs, and a trend towards greater verb diversity. These findings suggest that immersive language environments facilitate the development of more native-like representations of verbs and VACs. We discuss these findings in connection with both usage-based theories of language acquisition and the noisy representations account.