Responses of tree defoliators to traffic-derived particulate matter and trace elements along a roadside pollution gradient

Traffic-derived particulate matter (PM) and trace elements (TEs) are pervasive stressors in roadside habitats. Although some insects, including pest species, appear to thrive despite roadside pollution, such observations may risk overgeneralization. We examined the responses of Yponomeuta padella, as a model roadside defoliator, to PM and TE pollution by rearing larvae on two hosts-Crataegus monogyna and Prunus cerasifera-obtained along a real-world pollution gradient (control, sidewalk, roadside). Leaves were characterized for physical traits (SLA, toughness), PM load, and TE concentrations. PM pollution followed a consistent control < sidewalk < roadside pattern across categories and size fractions; Cu, Fe and Sr showed the same spatial trend, while As, Cd, and Pb were absent in most control samples. Choice tests revealed strong larval avoidance of contaminated foliage (roadside and sidewalk) irrespectively of host species. Emergence dynamics (logistic models) showed slower growth rates and later inflection points with increasing pollution, and eclosion success declined significantly from control (90.1%) to sidewalk (82.5%) and roadside (77.1%). Adult body mass was lowest for roadside diets. Host species differed in SLA, toughness, and several accumulation metrics, but site effects dominated developmental outcomes. The results demonstrate context-dependent susceptibility of moths to PM and link adult performance costs to larval diets on PM-contaminated foliage. We propose that co-occurring pollution and stress typical of road verges act as an ecological filter shaping insect survival, with implications for habitat degradation in roadside ecosystems.