Physicochemical and textural optimization of plant-based cheese using lentil–gluten protein systems

The rising demand for sustainable foods has accelerated interest in plant-based cheese; however, replacing casein with plant proteins often compromises texture, meltability, and overall quality. This study investigated lentil–gluten protein systems in dairy-free cheese formulations and evaluated the effects of protein, modified tapioca starch, chitosan, maltodextrin, and oil using response surface methodology (RSM). A central composite design with 50 formulations was used to model effects on moisture, protein, fat, ash, color, meltability, and texture properties. Functional characterization showed that modified tapioca starch exhibited the highest swelling capacity (9.21 mL/g) and water retention capacity (WRC) (10.03 g/g), while lentil protein showed the greatest water solubility index (WSI) (9.47%), and oil-holding capacity (OHC) (0.61 g/g). Linear models accurately described trends in moisture, ash, fat, and protein contents ( R 2 = 0.95–0.99). Protein ( p < 0.01), chitosan ( p < 0.05), and starch ( p < 0.05) significantly increased hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness, whereas oil enhanced meltability ( p < 0.01). Higher protein levels decreased lightness ( ) but increased and values, reflecting natural pigments and Maillard reaction products. The optimized formulation—28.31% protein powder, 20% oil, 1.5% chitosan, 9.99% starch, and 2.03% maltodextrin—achieved high overall desirability and closely matched predicted values, confirming model validity. Overall, this study provides the first integrated quantitative assessment of lentil–gluten systems in plant-based cheese and identifies ingredient interactions that govern structure and melting behavior. The findings establish a data-driven formulation framework capable of producing high-protein, texturally stable dairy-free cheese with improved functional and sensory potential. • Lentil and gluten proteins form viscoelastic matrices in dairy-free cheese. • Chitosan and modified tapioca starch enhance hardness and textural stability. • Oil type modulates meltability by altering protein–starch network dynamics. • Protein and starch interactions significantly influence color, , , and values. • RSM modeling predicts physicochemical and textural properties of formulations.