Comparative analysis of water footprints among urban and rural agricultural households in southeast Nigeria

Water scarcity remains a growing challenge in Southeast Nigeria, where agriculture sustains both peri-urban and rural livelihoods. This study analyzed the total water footprint (WF) of agricultural households and its components, identifying major water-consuming activities in urban and rural farming households in Enugu State. A multistage sampling procedure selected 64 participants (33 urban and 31 rural households). Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, the Vester matrix, and Ordinary Least Squares regression. Results showed that the total WF of urban agricultural households (19,516.9 m3/month) was 6.6% higher than that of rural households (17,088.2 m3/month). However, the WF components revealed distinct patterns. The blue WF of rural households (40.5 m3/month) exceeded that of urban households (36.9 m3/month) by 4.7%, reflecting greater use of surface and groundwater for drinking and cooking. Conversely, the green WF of urban households (17,976.1 m3/month) was 6.0% higher than that of rural households (15,764.3 m3/month), while the gray WF, representing water used for daily domestic activities, was also higher in urban areas (1503.9 m3/month) than in rural areas (1283.4 m3/month), a 7.9% difference that was statistically significant. Farmland size significantly influenced the total WF of both urban (p < 0.01) and rural (p < 0.05) households, while household size showed weaker positive effects. Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between the blue and green WFs of rural households (r = 0.82, p < 0.001). The Vester matrix identified inefficient water use in urban households and limited water-saving devices in rural households as critical drivers of water consumption. Hence, the study underscores the need for context-specific water management strategies, including the promotion of rainwater harvesting, improved irrigation efficiency, and behavior-change interventions to reduce household-level water footprints in Southeast Nigeria.