Household perspectives and predictors of human–carnivore conflict in Nepal’s Annapurna Conservation Area

Since its inception in 1986, Nepal's Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) has made significant strides as one of the world's first Integrative Conservation Development Projects, balancing community needs, development, and conservation. In this time, attitudes among residents towards carnivores such as snow leopards Panthera uncia have improved dramatically. Despite this, carnivore depredation of livestock continues to threaten local agropastoral livelihoods, creating tensions between residents and the ACA. In this study, we reassess the drivers of community perceptions of human-carnivore conflict through semi-structured interviews with residents, key informants, and focus group discussions. Analyzed through ordinal logistic models and qualitative examination, our 2025 survey responses reflect sustained improvements in community attitudes toward snow leopards since initial studies in 1994, while perceptions of wolves Canis Lupis remain overwhelmingly negative. The key driver of perceptions of snow leopards is the growth of the tourism industry as an alternative income source, in addition to education and gender. Perceptions of conservation actors are mixed, with an overall belief that local bodies represent pastoralist interests better than ACA upper management, with the livestock compensation scheme as a key source of tension. Our findings will inform future conservation policy that addresses human-wildlife conflict among shifts in human livelihoods, demographic shifts, and climate change.