Comparison of model Predictive control (MPC) algorithms to optimise blood glucose in fully closed loop (FCL) systems

While these innovations show promise in in-silico models, clinical validation is lacking. Key barriers include glucagon instability, CGM inaccuracies, cost, and patient adherence. Future research must prioritise long-term trials incorporating real-world factors such as exercise and dietary variability. By integrating predictive control, adaptive learning, and dual-hormone regulation, FCL systems could transform diabetes management, bridging the gap between technology and full automation.