Identification of ecosystem service bundles and flow characteristics in the Changbai Mountain area

The identification of ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) and analysis of ecosystem service flows (ESFs) provide important pathways for enhancing our understanding of regional ecosystems, transitioning from static characteristics to dynamic processes. However, current studies have predominantly focused on either the static identification of ESBs or the analysis of individual ESFs, failing to organically integrate their spatial patterns and, thus, hindering the systematic identification of holistic characteristics within regional ecosystems. This study analyzed the Changbai Mountain Area, with particular focus on holistic characteristics, and used a three-dimensional framework of “supply–demand-measurement–bundle-identification–flow analysis” to quantitatively evaluate nine important service categories. Using the self-organizing mapping method to identify ESBs and then analyze ESF characteristics, the spatial matching relationship between supply zones and beneficiary zones was clarified. The results revealed spatial supply–demand mismatches across all nine ecosystem services, with hydrological regulation services showing the most prominent cross-regional mismatch—reflecting the core “upstream supply–downstream demand” contradiction. Furthermore, ESBs with coexisting surpluses and deficits were identified in the same sub-basins, with their spatial patterns and dominant service types clarified, and a strong correlation was confirmed between the “topography–land-use–human activity” gradient and ESB formation. In addition, the ESB types exhibited three ESF patterns (comprehensive, nature-pathway-dominated, human-pathway-dominated), and all bundles formed bidirectional “service provider–beneficiary” networks. This study provides a foundational reference for ecological conservation and management.