Integrating energy access and climate policy in Ghana: Household carbon footprints and pathways to synergistic outcomes

• Household carbon footprints average 56.4 kg CO₂/month, driven by electricity access • Energy ladder shows non-linear emission patterns across household transition stages • Clean cooking transitions cut emissions 14-47% while improving household health • Carbon pricing severely burdens energy-poor households through regressive effects • Integrated policies reduce emissions 20% while creating positive welfare outcomes Energy access expansion and climate mitigation objectives present apparent trade-offs for developing countries pursuing sustainable development pathways. This study examines household-level energy choices and carbon footprints in Ghana to identify policy integration opportunities that advance both objectives simultaneously. Using comprehensive survey data from 4,800 households, the study calculates detailed residential energy carbon footprints and analyzes energy access patterns across multiple dimensions, including electricity connection, clean cooking access, and energy poverty status. Household carbon footprints average 56.4 kg CO₂ monthly, with substantial variation driven primarily by electricity access rather than income levels. Energy ladder analysis reveals non-linear emission patterns, with households having electricity plus traditional cooking exhibiting the highest emissions (97.3 kg CO₂/month) while full modern access households show lower emissions (83.9 kg CO₂/month). Clean cooking transitions offer 14-47% emission reduction potential while providing health and time-saving co-benefits. Carbon pricing analysis demonstrates severe regressive impacts, with the poorest households facing a 13.5% income burden versus 3.4% for the wealthiest at $25/tCO₂. However, integrated approaches combining carbon pricing with clean cooking subsidies achieve 20% emission reduction with positive welfare impacts and progressive distribution. Universal clean cooking scenarios reach 30% emission reduction while benefiting 2,466 households through health improvements. The findings challenge assumptions about inherent trade-offs between energy access and climate mitigation, demonstrating that technology choice, rather than access levels per se, determines environmental outcomes. Results exhibit high transferability to middle-income Sub-Saharan African countries with similar energy systems but require recalibration for contexts with substantially different grid compositions or institutional capacities.