Working memory in technology-enhanced language learning: a systematic review from interactive to AI-mediated contexts

Despite these advances, direct assessment of WM is largely absent from AI-mediated intervention studies, which rely on cognitive load proxies. This measurement gap limits causal inference regarding whether AI primarily reduces task demands, improves functional WM utilization, or supports WM capacity development. The review calls for future research to incorporate validated WM measures, adopt aptitude-treatment interaction designs, and establish evidence-based boundaries for AI-mediated multimodal adaptivity across diverse EFL and ESL contexts.