Exploring Striped Hyena ( <i>Hyaena hyaena</i> ) population densities in Saudi Arabia: insights and conservation perspectives

Abstract Population estimates are essential for understanding species biology, assessing conservation status, and informing wildlife management. However, robust population data from mixed-use landscapes—particularly in arid regions—remain sparse, especially for medium-sized carnivores that typically occur at low densities. Striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena), solitary scavenging carnivores classified as Near Threatened, are understudied across their range. We conducted 21 camera trap surveys across 18 sites in western Saudi Arabia, providing the first robust density estimates of striped hyenas for 9 of these areas using maximum-likelihood spatially explicit capture-recapture models. We hypothesized that the presence of livestock and Arabian wolves would influence the detection probability of striped hyenas. Striped hyenas were photographed in 14 areas during surveys that spanned 74,211 trap days and included 997 geographically distinct camera stations. Density estimates ranged from 1.16 ± 0.49 to 13.69 ± 1.91 individuals per 100 km2, with half-relative confidence interval widths below 50% in 6 of 9 surveys, providing baseline density estimates to detect future change. Detection probability was significantly higher at stations where Arabian wolves were frequently captured, while the influence of livestock capture rates varied. Our results reveal notable geographic variation, with higher detection frequencies in the southwest compared to the more arid northwest, suggesting increased vulnerability for northern populations. We hypothesize that livestock may serve as a critical food source for striped hyenas in areas with depleted natural prey. We propose that the observed density variation likely reflects differences in livestock protection measures, livestock management practices, wolf-livestock interactions (e.g., carrion availability), and carcass removal protocols. This study provides the first baseline density estimates for striped hyenas in western Saudi Arabia and offers novel insights into ecological and anthropogenic factors shaping their population dynamics. These findings underscore the importance of considering local ecological and management contexts in conservation planning for this species.