PHEV-ReGrid universal plug-in hybrid platform for complete transport electrification and renewable grid integration

The Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle ReGrid (PHEV-ReGrid) is introduced as a universal platform capable of transforming any plug-in hybrid vehicle into a 30-kWh mobile grid-support unit. A global fleet of one billion PHEV-ReGrid vehicles could provide over 30 TWh of distributed energy storage, offering substantial potential to buffer short-term renewable generation variability, subject to realistic vehicle-to-grid (V2G) participation rates of 20–50%. The architecture combines a 30-kWh sodium-ion battery (pack mass ≈ 210 kg, based on 2025–2026 CATL Naxtra specifications: 175 Wh/kg cell, ~ 150–160 Wh/kg pack) for daily driving with a compact 0.25-L motorcycle-derived internal combustion engine (ICE, Honda CBR250RR-derived, max ~ 31 kW) operating exclusively as a range-extending generator. Compared with current battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), the PHEV-ReGrid offers lower cost, reduced mass, higher efficiency, and elimination of long-distance range anxiety under realistic conditions. A case study redesigning the Tesla Model 3 Highland shows that replacing the 82-kWh NMC battery with a 30-kWh sodium-ion pack and ICE generator reduces vehicle mass by ~ 210 kg, lowers production cost by approximately US$8,500–9,500, decreases annual energy consumption by ~ 11%, and provides effective multi-fold highway range extension via ICE supplementation. The platform scales to heavier categories; for example, a 150-kWh sodium-ion battery with a 1-L ICE generator could enable long-haul trucks to achieve 1000–2000 km range at roughly half the mass and one-third the cost of equivalent BEV configurations. The study critiques reliance on megawatt-scale fast-charging infrastructure and highlights the PHEV-ReGrid’s use of low-power off-peak home charging and peak-period V2G support to enhance grid stability and renewable integration. This architecture offers a technically and economically viable pathway toward full transport electrification while strengthening renewable-powered energy systems.