Gender differences in birding specialization from 25 countries: effects are large in skill/knowledge and minimal in commitment

Abstract This study investigates gender differences in birding specialization, a leisure activity characterized by three dimensions: skill/knowledge, behavior, and psychological commitment. We used data from a worldwide survey during December 19th 2020 and April 16th 2021 from 25 countries and psychometrically validated instruments. A total of 4006 people (2737 men, 1269 women; mean age 50.13 years, SD = 16.5) participated in the study. Meta-analytical tools were used to analyze the results. Men reported higher levels of skill/knowledge (effect size d = 0.75), behavior ( d = 0.43), and psychological commitment ( d = 0.18) than women. Gender-related differences in skill/knowledge correlated with gender equality indices, indicating that differences between men and women are large in more gender-equal societies. Gender-related behavioral differences reflect societal constraints on women’s leisure due to care responsibilities, while men’s higher skills could be related to competitive tendencies in birding. The results align with the “gender-equality paradox,” suggesting greater gender differences in contexts of higher societal equality. Recommendations for future research include considering initiation age of the leisure activity, lifetime leisure/recreational experience, and societal factors influencing gender-specific participation in cognitive leisure activities.