Seeing through the virtual reality: the effects of learning environment and task difficulty on difficulty perception, learning outcomes and mental models

Virtual Reality (VR) offers learners highly immersive learning experiences through rich audiovisual stimuli and interactive environments, while traditional multimedia videos remain one of the most widely used instructional formats. However, existing research on the effects of these two learning environments (VR vs. multimedia videos) on learning outcomes, particularly knowledge transfer and mental models, has inconsistent conclusions, with task difficulty potentially playing a key role. Considering that different difficulty levels of learning tasks may trigger differentiated difficulty perceptions among learners in various environments, thereby influencing their learning outcomes and mental models, this study investigated how the interaction between learning environment and task difficulty affected learners' difficulty perceptions, learning outcomes, and mental models. In the present study, we used a dual-task paradigm to investigate task difficulty processing under different learning environment conditions. This study included 92 college students and used a 2 (learning environment: VR vs. multimedia video) by 2 (task difficulty: high vs. low) between-subject factorial design. Results showed that: (1) In VR learning environment, students found high-difficulty tasks more challenging and low-difficulty tasks simpler; (2) VR learning environment enhanced knowledge transfer and mental model construction, particularly improving mental model development when tasks were highly difficult; (3) multimedia video learning environment was more conducive to knowledge retention, with better mental model development in the low-difficulty tasks condition. The study provides empirical evidence for the instructional design of immersive and traditional media environments, highlighting the importance of adaptive design strategies to optimize learning outcomes across varying cognitive demands.