Nanotechnology and adaptive agronomy for climate–resilient wheat production: A global perspective

Wheat production is increasingly threatened by climate–induced stresses such as terminal heat, drought and erratic rainfall, posing serious risks to global food security. This review synthesises peer–reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2025 to evaluate the synergistic potential of nanotechnology in conjunction with adaptive agronomic practices to enhance a climate–resilient wheat production system. Evidence from multi–location field trials and meta–analyses indicates that improved sowing dates facilitate phenological escape from stress, while nano–enabled fertilisers, pesticides and biostimulants enhance nutrient use efficiency (NUE), enable controlled release and improve abiotic stress tolerance. Concurrently, supplemental water management strategies, like hydrogels and conservation agriculture, mitigate drought stress and enhance water use efficiency (WUE). The crop simulation models, such as decision support system for agrotechnology transfer (DSSAT) and the agricultural production systems simulator (APSIM), further enable scenario analyses and site–specific managementrecommendations. Despite promising outcomes, reporting yield gains of 15–35 %, significant challenges remain regarding the long–term environmental fate of nanoparticles (NPs), the regulatory processes required for their synthesis and formulation with pesticides or other amendments, as well as the affordability of these technologies for subsistence farmers. Future research should include multi–year and multi–site testing, as well as uniform characterisation of NPs and linking them with artificial intelligence tools and remote sensing techniquesmentioned in participatory socio–economic analysis. The collective forward movement of these impacts will ensure safe scaling and adoption of nanotechnologies with adaptive agronomy to help strengthen global wheat resilience to climate variability, as well as contribute towards sustainable agriculture development.