Modeling farmers’ intentions to use safe pesticides in tobacco farming in Malawi using an extended theory of planned behavior

Effective planning to reduce pesticide misuse in agriculture requires not only an understanding of farmers’ intentions to use safe pesticides but also an identification of key factors essential for these intentions to materialize. This study applies an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework to model determinants of farmers’ intentions to use safe pesticides in tobacco fields, incorporating risk perception and moral norms into the original TPB model. A sample of 273 tobacco farmers in Central Malawi was selected through simple random sampling. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), combined with necessary condition analysis (NCA), was used to analyze participant responses. Except for subjective norms (SN), all variables significantly influence farmers’ intentions. Attitudes are especially critical while SN play a subordinate role. Although subjective norms are not a sufficient factor, they are necessary conditions, alongside attitudes, for reaching a relevant intention level; each must meet a critical minimum threshold. Risk perception, moral norms, and perceived behavioral control are not necessary conditions; however, enhancing them along with attitudes improves farmers’ intentions. Policymakers and regulatory authorities are encouraged to design interventions that highlight the human health, economic, and environmental benefits of using safe pesticides, align with farmers’ beliefs about pesticide risks, incorporate ethical concerns and practical incentives, and leverage peer influence.