Soft tissue abnormalities in the congenital limb malformation radial dysplasia ( <scp>RD</scp> ): Their clinical impact and treatment significance

The defining features of the upper limb congenital anomaly, radial dysplasia (RD), involve both skeletal and soft tissue malformation, including muscle, vascular, and neural structures, with varying degrees of severity. Herein, we summarise the range of soft tissue anatomy malformations that have been described in RD, with the objective of better understanding their aetiology and clinical significance. Changes to muscle anatomy can include hypoplasia and fusion; vascular defects often involve persistent median arteries and absent radial arteries. There are also consistent differences in neural projections that have consequences on surgical approaches. Understanding these changes from normal anatomy, their origins and variations is important for improving diagnosis, management, and surgical outcomes in RD.