Mechanical properties of whole-body human bones: a review

Abstract The mechanical properties of hard tissues, particularly bones, are fundamental to understanding human biomechanics, injury mechanisms, and the development of effective mitigation strategies. These properties are critical for accurate computational modelling, structural analysis under physiological loading, and the design and testing of orthopedic implants, prosthetics, and protective devices. While previous experimental studies have investigated the mechanical properties of selected bones, primarily large load-bearing bones such as the femur and tibia, there remains a significant gap in the comprehensive characterization of the entire human skeletal system. This limitation hampers advancements in areas such as surgical planning, forensic biomechanics, implant development, and trauma assessment. The purpose of this work is to address these challenges by presenting an extensive review of the literature that reports the mechanical properties of all human bones from head to toe. Specifically, this review compiles available data on linear mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus, ultimate strength, and fracture toughness for individual bones and introduces nonlinear constitutive models used to simulate bone behaviour under complex loading conditions. Furthermore, the review identifies key gaps in the existing literature, providing direction for future biomechanical research aimed at enhancing the fidelity of medical models and improving injury prediction, prevention, and treatment strategies.