Determinants, synergies, trade-offs, and impacts of climate-smart agriculture technology adoption on crop yield and farm income: evidence from Tanzania

Research has not adequately investigated whether proximity of medium- and large-scale farms (MSFs & LSFs) to smallholder farmers (SHFs) affects CSA technology adoption in Africa, or established the relationship between adoption and farm income. Using the 2019/20 National Sample Census of Agriculture in Tanzania, comprising 6,919,576 SHFs, 622,723 MSFs, and 1,093 LSFs, we analyze determinants of CSA adoption using the Multivariate Probit Model (MVP) and estimate effects through Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). Findings show adoption rates for irrigation, improved seed, organic and inorganic fertilizer in maize were 1.8, 36.4, 14.1 and 23.0%, while in paddy were 6.0, 9.7, 1.7 and 16.3% respectively, remaining limited. Smallholder farmers near MSFs and LSFs were more likely to adopt. We identified complementarities and trade-offs between technologies. Results show CSA adoption positively impacts crop yield and farm income for SHFs, supporting policies that encourage CSA adoption and promoting coexistence of large, medium, and SHFs.