Protest without influence? A meso-level analysis of women's inclusion in civil resistance movements

While female participation in rebel groups is well studied, women's roles in nonviolent uprisings remain less understood. Using novel data on women's participation in 1135 dissenting organizations in Africa (1990-2015), we test hypotheses that organizational ideology (leftist, liberal, gender-equal) increases the likelihood of women's involvement. We find that the only ideology with a consistently positive effect on female participation—across organizational levels—is gender-inclusive ideology. The article expands civil resistance literature by showing that despite women's numeric and substantive contributions in movements, they often lack representation in formal organizations that lead and shape uprisings during mobilization and beyond.