Comprehensive seasonal assessment of potable water in rural schools of Kurukshetra, Haryana: hydrogeochemical and multivariate statistical evaluation

ABSTRACT Groundwater is the main drinking water source for rural schools in India, making its quality essential for protecting schoolchildren's health. This study assessed seasonal variations in groundwater quality across 25 rural schools in Kurukshetra district of Haryana by analyzing 14 physico-chemical parameters and two bacteriological indicators during the pre-monsoon, MON, and POM seasons. Major ion chemistry showed a typical alluvial pattern dominated by bicarbonate (HCO3− > Cl− > SO42− > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+). WQI values indicated ‘excellent’ to ‘good’ quality in the pre-monsoon (26.18–43.50) but a decline during the MON (27.46–72.40) and POM (45.94–91.53) seasons, mainly due to increases in chloride, bicarbonate, and hardness along with higher microbial loads; 24% of schools exceeded WHO limits for total coliforms, which ranged from <1.8 to 9.2 MPN/100 mL. PCA showed five components in private schools and four in government schools, suggesting an additional anthropogenic influence in private-school groundwater likely linked to submersible borewell infrastructure. Sites with the highest WQI also showed elevated calcium, nitrate, and fluoride in POM samples. Overall, the groundwater is generally suitable for drinking, but seasonal microbial contamination and rising nitrate and fluoride levels highlight the need for targeted monitoring and treatment.