Exercise-specific post-translational modification signatures: unveiling precise regulatory mechanisms of molecular exercise language and cellular adaptation

Exercise reshapes cellular function and intercellular communication through dynamic post-translational modifications (PTMs) that fine-tune protein activity and inter-organ signaling. However, the traditional aerobic-anaerobic dichotomy does not fully capture PTM-driven regulatory logic across exercise modes. This review centers on the muscle-brain and muscle-liver axes and proposes an operational concept of exercise-specific PTM signatures, emphasizing acetylation, ubiquitination, and lactylation as core PTMs implicated in metabolic memory and adaptive remodeling. To connect exercise intensity with metabolic improvement, we introduce the PTM threshold theory and outline how integrated exercise-PTM-disease target databases, coupled with machine-learning approaches, can support personalized exercise prescription and translation toward exercise pharmacology and rare-disease rehabilitation. Overall, PTM-centered regulatory networks provide a unifying and actionable framework for decoding exercise adaptation and prioritizing therapeutic strategies.