Spatiotemporal variation of the maximum cooling effect across edge-to-interior gradients in forest patches of southwestern China

Forest canopies create buffered understory microclimates that differ markedly from adjacent open-area reference conditions. However, how this buffering effect varies near the forest edge, especially between different forest types and seasons, remains poorly understood. In particular, the spatiotemporal dynamics of maximum cooling and the spatial extent of edge influence across forest types remain under-quantified. This study quantified monthly maximum cooling intensity (MCI) and distance of edge influence (DEI) using transect-based in situ air-temperature monitoring at three natural forest sites in southwestern China that span a temperate coniferous forest (CF), a subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest (SF), and a tropical forest (TF). Air temperature was measured at 1.5 m height from the forest edge to 99.5 m into the interior and was paired with a continuously recorded open reference. DEI varied strongly through the year and among sites, ranging from 18 to 77 m in CF, from 13 to 65 m in SF, and from 17 to 59 m in TF. DEI reached its early-summer minimum in May in CF and in June in both SF and TF, while annual DEI was 82 m in CF, 72 m in SF, and 56 m in TF. Within the corresponding interior zones, extreme cooling was strongest in TF (MCI = -8.2°C) and weakest in CF (MCI = -5.8°C). These site-level patterns indicate that both the intensity and spatial reach of extreme cooling are seasonally dynamic along a climatic gradient, which supports edge-aware microclimate mapping, evaluation of interior habitat connectivity, and conservation planning in fragmented forests under climate change.