Effectiveness and heterogeneous impacts of traffic safety education on non-motorized vehicle violations

The results reveal significant heterogeneity in behavioral responses to TSE and limited durability of its deterrent effects. To foster long-term behavioral change, TSE programs should transition from uniform delivery to precision-targeted approaches, focusing on high-risk subgroups-especially younger riders, habitual offenders, and individuals with rapid relapse patterns. Integrating sustained educational reinforcement with targeted enforcement and personalized feedback may enhance behavioral retention and improve overall traffic safety outcomes.