Nanomaterial based photoacoustic interface for non-genetic neuromodulation

Photoacoustic (PA) stimulation is an emerging technology aiming to modulate neuronal activity safely, precisely, and efficiently without genetic modification. Owing to their strong light absorption, easy to process in the composite, nanomaterials have been utilized as PA interfaces developed for high spatial and temporal resolution PA stimulation without thermal damage <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i>. This topical review introduces the theory of PA generation and summarizes the nanomaterials used in PA neural modulation. We discuss how these PA interfaces are applied in <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i> studies, and highlight their unique capabilities and potential clinical applications. We further review mechanistic studies that provide insights into how neurons respond to mechanical stimuli. Overall, nanomaterial-based PA neural interfaces have shown exciting potential in non-genetic modulation of the brain and retina, serving as a unique tool for neuroscience and opening new opportunities for treating neurological disorders.