Understanding the role of offshore energy structures in ecosystem service delivery: Applying global findings to the North Sea

• DAPSI(W)R(M) is a problem structuring framework, here applied to offshore energy structures. • Oil and gas platforms and wind farms are linked to ecosystem service delivery and the production of societal benefits. • The life stage of a structure heavily influences the species present, along with the ecosystem services delivered. The marine environment provides a wealth of ecosystem services, which can deliver human benefit when combined with built, human or social capital. Through the expansion of offshore energy infrastructure, human intervention has reshaped marine ecosystems on a global scale. Yet, the changes that these structures induce in the environment and the knock-on effects on ecosystem services remains poorly understood. This study aims to first provide a comprehensive review on the role of offshore energy structures in ecosystem service delivery, synthesising findings from 18 countries over a 42-year period. These findings are then structured under the DAPSI(W)R(M) framework, to draw links between human activity, environmental effects and ecosystem services. The findings are discussed in the context of UK energy transitions in the North Sea. The life stage of the structure and the specific marine environment were the biggest driving forces behind how a structure affected ecosystem services. The initial construction stage created many pressures within the environment, which in turn negatively affected how people engaged with the marine environment through the displacement of commercial fishing, local tourism and visual enjoyment of the seascape. Conversely, structures in place for several years fostered reef-like habitats, leading to enhanced tourism, increased fish stocks and improved nutrient cycling by benthic species. Existing research has focused primarily on the construction and operation periods, with limited research available which addresses how different decommissioning approaches will affect associated communities and ecosystem services. By improving knowledge around the role that offshore structures have in the delivery of ecosystem services and the tools used to assess a structures value, such findings could support informed decision-making for decommissioning on a global scale.